Effective public relations 5th edition

Effective Communication for District and School Administrators. The book is a unique and necessary contribution to the literature on school administration. Research, theory, and practice were melded to produce a book that can be used as a primary or supplemental text or as professional growth resource for practitioners. Communication scholars, especially since , have concluded that competence. The Principal. Authors: Bruce M. Whitehead, Floyd Boschee, Robert H. Then all sorts of terms 37 and concepts creep into the conversation.

The Shannon—Weaver model of commu- 43 nication illustrates this approach see p. Mass media communication uses print, broad- 9 cast or phone wires to communicate with a wide range of geographically scattered 10 people.

This excludes all the accidents of over- hearing or instances where the television is on, but the room is empty. The discussion on semiotics pp.

This can be one-to-one a conversation , one-to-many a speech , 38 or even many-to-one a protest. This 42 could still be one-to-one, like a telephone conversation. Or it could be one-to-many, 43 like a radio broadcast.

The internet and 46 the World Wide Web provide a wholly new possibility — many-to-many communica- 47 tion using newsgroups to talk to newsgroups. The 49 presentational media are those which are not mediated, such as voice, body language and facial expressions. Representational media may include these 2 elements but the communicator does not need to be actually present. Fiske calls these 6 works of communication. Other 8 theorists would describe technical issues as relating to channels not media, but they are 9 often used to mean the same thing.

These 12 media allow communicators to reach at low cost compared to contacting them indi- 13 vidually large numbers of people who have already chosen to purchase or consume 14 that paper or magazine or programme. Interestingly, the internet 25 allows both kinds of communication. But websites, chatrooms and newsgroups allow direct communication with 28 interested parties — and, of course, between them. But it assumes that communication will always have an effect and suggests that 7 communication is always persuasive.

In this model, the communicator or sender decides 8 what and how to communicate and the receiver just waits to be affected — an approach 9 that is now considered very limited McQuail and Windahl He and his partner Warren Weaver worked for 12 Bell Telephones and their interest was driven by the technical requirements of a medium.

Interference might occur in the handset of the speaker or receiver, or in the lines 15 connecting them. As a result the message could be distorted and misunderstood. The 16 same principle could be translated to different media, for example radio static, poor TV reception, small print, blurred photographs.

Noise was later expanded to include day- 18 dreaming, physical discomfort or other kinds of distraction. It was an important reminder 19 that communication sent is not always — if ever — the same as communication received. This model has some useful elements for public rela- 25 tions, particularly regarding the role of feedback.

When two people are in conversation, 26 the speaker is free to adjust his or her tone, speed, language, emphasis and so on, 27 according to questions, nods, smiles and other responses from the listener. Indeed, if 28 something is not understood, it can quickly be made clear. The source and receiver are 29 in a constant feedback and adjustment loop.

This feedback element is crucial to effec- 30 tive public relations — we need to know if the message was received, how it was under- 31 stood and what actions or changes in attitude or behaviour have followed receipt of 32 the message. First, it is linear: feedback is not the same 36 thing as equal participation in the communication, and second, it is hard to place the 37 mass media comfortably in this model. The Osgood—Schramm model Figure 2. In , they created a circular model, 43 which showed that the receiver as well as the sender is engaged in a continuous and 44 active act of communication.

Each party has to interpret the message and shape a 45 response before sending it out or back. Schramm added, 46 47 In fact it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere 48 and ending somewhere.

It is really endless. We are really switchboard centres 49 handling and rerouting the great endless current of information. Feedback in mass media 41 communications is quite different from personal or group communications. There may 42 be letters to the editor, of course, but often the effect of a communication is very hard 43 to measure. By far the most useful model from this period is the Westley—McLean 44 model of Figure 2. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd 25 26 all the players to those events.

The model reminds the PR that 31 the journalist or gatekeeper has access to more information X3c than their press 32 releases. The model also describes the complexity of feedback in mass media commu- 33 nication with feedback loops running between the PR and the journalist, the PR and 34 the public and the public and the journalist, though the feedback via mass media is 35 delayed. Likewise, the behaviour group B is no 39 longer dependent on the mass media for information and can access the events in the 40 environment directly.

B can also contact other members of the audience and exchange 41 communication without contact with A or C. There are other theorists who see the process and the actions of the sender 45 as quite irrelevant. They emphasise the role of the audience or receiver in constructing 46 meaning.

Semiotics cannot be fully explored here, but it is 6 worth pointing out a few elements from this approach which are relevant to students 7 of public relations. While 12 gestures for food or sleep might be universal, the words are not. Semiotics breaks signs 13 into the thing itself for example what you eat , the sign for it the letters F-O-O-D, 14 which are, of course, inedible and the meaning you associate with that sign food 15 means different things to the starving and the bulimic reader Fiske It investi- 16 gates the gaps between what is intended — or encoded — by the source, and what is understood — or decoded — by the receiver.

For example, an image of a woman in a swimming costume 32 may represent different meanings to people of different cultures or different polit- 33 ical and ideological views. Failure to do so can lead to misunderstanding or even 40 offence. This suggests that people are 47 active seekers of information who choose to read or watch particularly magazines or 48 programmes because they expect that medium to supply them with a particular need.

The German scholar Maletzke provides an overview of the whole communication process, combining all these elements 18 Figure 2. Likewise, the receiver is placed 22 in a social context, subject to his or her own environmental pressures.

It makes the 23 processes of encoding and decoding quite detailed and explicit. Maletzke suggests that 24 the medium is surrounded by a series of pressures or constraints. The medium itself has constraints — material prepared 27 for broadcast is different from material prepared for press.

The fact that the commu- 28 nication is public also brings restraints. These can all affect the selection and struc- 29 turing of content and might also cover awareness of such elements as the legal aspects 30 of the medium and relevant news values. Each medium has its own characteristics that affect the way the receiver experi- 34 ences the content, from the feel of a newspaper to shared viewing at a cinema. Different 35 attitudes to the internet illustrate this point: there are those who logged on years ago, 36 enthusiastically navigating their way through cyberspace, while others hesitate, scared 37 of the mouse.

Some academics study the psychology of individuals to understand 45 different responses to messages such as advertisements or health campaigns. Other aca- 46 demics study the connections between violence on television and violence in society. This section cannot cover all of these debates but looks at some of the issues most relevant to the student of public relations. Questions of attitude formation and change, beliefs, values and opinions 39 were investigated as part of the research into persuasive communication.

However, in 40 the s some academics including the Birmingham School returned to the ideas 41 of the Frankfurt School and re-examined them. They looked at the effect of the media 42 on society and on class and found that the media tended to support the interests of 43 capitalism and its owners, of course. Researchers found negative media images 44 of working people, women, ethnic minorities and others with less power in society.

Unlike 47 the Frankfurt School or the Yale School, this group looked at effects on society as a 48 whole, rather than on individuals. Their more subtle description of effects has gained 49 continuing currency, while questions of effect on individuals — such as those exposed to violence — is still unclear.

They 7 can set the agenda for discussion and can exclude certain topics. These 11 communicators have not moved on from the linear model and tend to be engaged in 12 publicity or other one-way communications.

It is after all hard to explain that your 13 campaign may not work because the theories about the effects of communication are 14 unclear. However, as health campaigners have found over the decades, the reality 16 is very different.

Public relations can be a powerful agent — handle it with care. There are frequent 21 calls to return to a type of political activity where such tactics had no place. This presumption, frequently 24 asserted by the media and politicians, of the tainting effect of public relations on British 25 political culture, should be questioned. This chapter will assess the role of political public relations in Western demo- 32 cracies with a particular focus on governmental bodies within the United Kingdom.

A 33 later chapter in this book Chapter 8 will discuss lobbying. The role of the media will also be assessed in regard to 38 this aspect of the political process in Britain. We were then asked to present recommenda- 10 tions to help Yeltsin.

From political cultures as different as 20 Russia and Central America it appears that it is not ideas or personalities which win 21 elections but Anglo-American advertising and public relations companies. British politicians, and especially the government, are, in 30 many ways, at the heart of the news machine and the television news, in particular, 31 feeds us a constant daily diet of stories about Westminster, Whitehall and the devolved 32 parliaments.

However this discussion will focus on the role of public relations in the s 5 and s in Britain, a period which witnessed a rapid transformation in the role and 6 status of public relations within the political process.

This expansion of public relations 7 activity has unsuprisingly been accompanied by an increasing reliance upon media 8 management strategies. Cockerell et al. Obviously this kind 33 of political pseudo-event has a long history from Caesar entering Rome after another 34 famous military victory to the Nuremberg rallies in s Germany.

By contrast, during much of the s the 44 Labour Party was presented in the media as being in a state of, at best, disarray, at 45 worst, total disintegration.

The contrast with the Tory 3 Party, during the s, was stark. The Tories were united, Labour were divided; the 4 Tories had a strong leader, Labour had a series of weak and ineffectual leaders; the 5 Tories were in control of events, Labour were at the mercy of them; and so on. Behind the scenes the party 8 elite was far from united behind the powerful leader, but it was behind the scenes where 9 the personal and ideological disagreement, and the subsequent bloodletting, occurred.

After 22 all, in most theories of democratic government there is an assumption that the govern- 23 ment is the servant of the people, elected to carry out its will.

Just because govern- 24 ments have this duty to provide information to the general public does not mean, of 25 course, that they will not attempt to control and manipulate the amount of, and kinds 26 of, information they disseminate.

Information management in regard to government 27 simply means the processes and procedures by which governmental agencies dissemi- 28 nate the information they want us to receive. Cockerall et al. It is also clear, despite claims to the contrary by those who have 19 utilised it,5 that it is a unique system within Western democracies.

This does not mean 20 that other governments do not attempt to manage information — of course they do — 21 but it is normal practice to appoint a party political spokesperson who openly repre- 22 sents the government position and is attributable. In effect the Lobby became a govern- 36 ment press conference which could dispense unattributable information.

However, Hennessy condemns the practice as not working in the interests of 44 anyone else. Whilst it could be argued that the media are not necessarily dominated by politi- 13 cians in any direct or conspiratorial way, the way in which the British political sphere 14 is constructed and maintained by both the media and the politicians somewhat under- 15 mines any suggestion that the media constitute the fourth estate.

Politicians in general, and govern- 22 ment public relations specialists in particular, obviously rely on the media to commu- 23 nicate with the general public. Whether or not one agrees that the relation- 30 ship is one of media dependency a cursory look at media ownership in the UK would 31 indicate that the media are not independent of powerful economic and political inter- 32 ests in British society Negrine The reason for this one-way information-based communication approach is 7 because they have a pluralistic view of government.

Other countries, such as Canada 8 and Norway, practise strategic, two-way communication because the perspective under- 9 pinning governmental communication in these countries is societal corporatist.

They note: 39 40 Government agencies in the pluralist sphere do not need to practise strategic public 41 relations because they expect activist groups to come to them for services; and 42 the agency has no need to identify them.

In pure corporatism, the agency typically 43 chooses to collaborate with the most powerful interest groups; and little strategic 44 management is needed to identify them. In societal corporatism, however, the agency 45 must engage in environmental scanning and other forms of strategic public relations 46 to identify those groups with whom it has a responsibility to interact — in the interests 47 of those groups, the government and society at large. It was opposed 35 by the Conservative Party, which had recently lost all its Scottish seats at Westminster, 36 and the European Parliament.

Of the Scottish electorate who voted Labour was the largest party and has formed a 2 coalition government with the Liberal Democrat Party who came fourth just behind the 3 Conservative Party. The CSG Report, which outlined compre- 14 hensive proposals for the working of the new Parliament, was published on 15 January 15 This is also a power vested in parliamentary committees which 30 are made up of between 5 and 15 MSPs selected according to the balance of the various 31 political parties and groupings in the Parliament.

Interested parties respond to the Green Paper and are supposed to have a say 18 in how legislation is framed. Fairclough —41 provides a useful discourse analysis 19 of the text of the Green Paper on welfare reform. The others are press agentry, two-way asymmetrical and two-way symmetrical. Prime Minister. Cutlip et al. It has to adjust and adapt as both it and its environment change. The role of public relations is to develop 12 and maintain relationships with these groups in order for the organisation to meet its 13 goals.

If these consequences are adverse, then a public rela- tions problem or issue is created. This relationship holds good for both 19 internal and external publics. Human resources is a good example of such 26 a subsystem. Other functions focus on the marketing and distribution of products and 27 are called disposal subsystems. Adaptive subsystems help the organisation to adjust 28 when the environment in which it operates changes; research and development and 29 strategic planning departments are good examples.

Used by permission of Harcourt Inc. They straddle the edges of an organisation liaising both between its 3 internal subsystems and between it and the external environment which contains its 4 various publics. In this strategic role, public relations is usually seen to 6 be part of the management subsystem. They provide a counselling role, advising what and how to commu- 10 nicate and they can also provide an implementation role by undertaking the communi- 11 cation on behalf of the subsystems.

For example, it will help the human resources 12 department, part of the maintenance subsystem, with internal communication 13 programmes or the marketing department, part of the disposal subsystem, with product 14 promotion campaigns.

See also Chapter 11 for a discussion of systems theory relating 15 to internal communications. Effective organisations have a sense of purpose.

They 21 know where they are going and they know how they are going to get there. Alternatively the vision may be 25 more broad-based and generic. For example, universities exist to provide higher educa- 26 tion; their purpose is broadly the same — to undertake teaching, research and consul- 27 tancy. However, even within that broad category there are those with different priorities; 28 some are research driven, some want to serve a regional community, some specialise 29 in certain subjects.

This second element will be discussed later in this chapter. They do this in two ways. Second, they are knowledge- 48 able about the attitudes and behaviours of the various publics of the organisation who 49 populate this broader environment because they are in regular dialogue with those publics. PR professionals use the same techniques as those available to strategic 5 planners. They will undertake analyses of the environment using techniques such as 6 PEST.

This technique provides a framework that allows analysis of the environment 7 by categorising it under various headings; a short example is given in Figure 4. They recommend an expansion of 11 the framework to encompass the Environment, that is, the physical or green environ- 12 ment, Information and the Legal or regulatory aspects. Global warming, pressures to move from car-based transport, sustainability, 16 waste disposal and so on are all key issues.

The ubiquity and power of the internet radically alters 19 the past position where certain kinds of information have been the protected domain 20 of a privileged few. Furthermore the ability of outsiders to look into organisations trans- 21 parency and the ability of insiders to transmit information outside the organisation 22 porosity bring new challenges.

In addition 24 to growing amounts of national legislation, there are transnational regulations such as EU 25 directives and international agreements such as GATT. As 2 organisations become increasingly global they need to be aware of religious and social 3 differences between and within the countries in which they operate. Organisational 4 cultures differ too and values between suppliers, distributors and organisations or even 5 different parts of the same organisation can be quite distinct.

There are no standard responses; the drivers will be different depending 10 on the country, sector and organisation. It is also vital to identify the inter-relationships 11 between the key drivers. Economic trends may force political decisions and technology 12 often affects lifestyles and social interactions. For example, the internet has transformed 13 working, purchasing and leisure patterns.

Public relations planners are 23 in a privileged position in that they interact with organisational publics frequently: their 24 job is to manage and facilitate the communication between the organisation and its 25 publics, sometimes in conjunction with colleagues from elsewhere in the organisation. A typical organisation interacts with an enormous number 40 of publics.

Esman has usefully categorised these into four types of organisa- 41 tional linkages, as illustrated by Grunig and Hunt Figure 4.

Functional linkages provide input into 44 the organisation and consume its outputs. Normative linkages are those with peer organ- 45 isations, and diffused linkages are with those who have no formalised relationship with 46 the organisation, but have an interest in it.

Managing and interpreting information requires 36 both research and analytical capabilities and is an indication of the skills set required 37 of senior practitioners.

Public 40 relations practitioners are used to dealing with complex situations and of making sense 41 of inter-linked issues involving a variety of publics. Thus they can make a valuable 42 contribution to strategy-making by offering their skills of interpretation and counselling. Used by permission of Chapman and Hall 27 28 opinion is moving on a particular issue. Public affairs departments are often plugged 29 into government thinking on prospective legislation or have access to think tanks who 30 specialise in futures.

Their boundary-spanning role helps public relations professionals 31 maintain an independent perspective to decision-making. These models describe the 37 process of information gathering required when organisations are deciding which 38 strategic approach to take.

Thus, relatively closed 3 organisations do not take much account of the environment, they do not adapt to 4 changing circumstances and usually they eventually cease to exist. Relatively open 5 organisations are very responsive to the environment. They are acutely aware of change, 6 and adjust and adapt to either counteract or accommodate it. A key concept is that the 7 organisation both affects and is affected by the environment in which it operates. Open organisations, on the other hand, monitor their environment to gauge and 10 anticipate change and decide on a course of action before they are driven to one by 11 external events.

For example, media relations is judged on the number of releases 20 produced and the level of press cuttings achieved, not on the appropriateness or effec- 21 tiveness of the output. Genuine feedback is rarely sought, only feedback 24 on what techniques will make the transmission of information more effective.

The emphasis here is on reciprocity — communication with 41 publics takes the form of a genuine dialogue the two-way systematical approach advo- 42 cated by Grunig and Hunt and explained in Chapter 1 and the organisation is as likely 43 to change as the target publics as a result of the communication exchange.

This idea 44 is illustrated in Figure 4. Where there is a differ- 47 ence in what these should be, change can be initiated before real issues or problems 48 arise.

This proactive stance is important for organisational decision-making and that is 49 why public relations practitioners who operate in this fashion are often part of the dominant coalition.

In other words, practitioners 29 are principal decision-makers as opposed to just communicating results of decision- 30 making. However, more is possible. The internet can be used to build dialogue in 37 a potent and dynamic way by providing a level of immediacy, reach and interactivity 38 that has been impossible in the past.

They will 6 not be involved in organisational decision-making. Boundary-spanners in a very real sense, 35 communication facilitators remove barriers and establish links between all interested 36 parties. In general, junior practitioners tend to operate at the technician 48 level while senior practitioners undertake the management roles.

Used by permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 22 23 area of expertise. For example, journalists who move into a public relations role can 24 handle media relations at all levels in a highly skilled and effective way.

Figure 4. Externally management 43 communication is about communicating organisational vision to win the support of 44 external stakeholders. This 47 includes identifying customer needs. Most of these activities Van Riel states to be within the remit of public relations. The second question would require a list covering several 13 pages and that would be inappropriate here.

Many of the channels used are described 14 later in this book, but some of the most commonly used in public relations are the 15 media, conferences and exhibitions, direct literature, sponsorship, in-house journals, 16 corporate identity programmes, special events, corporate advertising and the internet.

He suggests that each channel be borne in mind 2 when an organisation considers communicating with its publics. This model provides a 6 clear demonstration of the scope and complexity of the public relations role. There is no single 13 blueprint for either the structure or the range of activities that should be undertaken, 14 15 and priorities will differ in every organisation. New, fast growing and turbulent sectors such 23 as the dot.

Neither type of environment requires the public relations effort to be more 25 or less strategic, but the speed of development and the in-built capability to change 26 direction quickly will be more of a prerequisite in the latter. A manufacturer or 28 retailer of fast-moving consumer goods could well require a heavier marketing commu- 29 nication focus whereas working for a trade or professional body may mean that member- 30 ship communication or lobbying are the primary public relations activities.

It may even be outsourced to an individual or consul- 40 tancy. The range of activities may well be restricted and undertaken by a public rela- 41 tions generalist. Large organ- 43 isations will have larger public relations departments. A number of factors need to be considered.

Some organisations, for example 2 niche manufacturers of space components, may have a limited range of publics. Some organisations have publics that form fairly discrete 5 blocks, for example car dealers have groups of customers, suppliers and employees. Some organisations have publics in a wide geographical area or 8 several socio-economic bandings. Others focus on concentrated areas. Employees are an example of a public intimately con- 15 nected with an organisation.

Other publics will have a more remote connection — 16 again pressure groups are an example. Usually organisations start small.

The owners know suppliers, customers 27 and employees. The public relations effort will often be one-to-one and the emphasis 28 is often on growth, thus marketing communication will be a priority. At this stage a generalist public relations professional may 31 be engaged to raise awareness of the company, its products and services. Internally, 32 the formal communication programme may begin. Now the organisation is likely to be well established. Employee communication is likely to be well devel- 39 oped, community relations will be a part of the agenda as the organisation takes on 40 a corporate social responsibility agenda and developing and maintaining a cohesive 41 corporate identity will be a priority.

The in-house department of several staff, usually 42 with specialisms, could well be complemented by engaging public relations consul- 43 tancies to work in such areas as government affairs and investor relations. Open organisations usually avoid decline by adjusting their activities or 45 moving into new areas.

However, organisations do move into periods of temporary 46 or permanent decline, for example through takeover, legislative change or bad 47 management. Here public relations has a key role to play in identifying issues in 48 the environment in order to avert crises. Ultimately, there is nothing public relations 49 can do if a business is non-viable. However, it is possible to exit with dignity and with reputation intact, and public relations has a key role to play.

To most marketers public relations means 23 publicity, that is, obtaining usually media coverage in support of products and services. Marketing has broadened its parameters to include 30 relationships with internal customers employees and the broader external stakeholder 31 community.

Even so, different professional outlooks 34 do maintain diverse perspectives which are of value to organisations. What is obviously clear is that internally there needs to be 39 a clear understanding of the roles of each discipline and where the responsibilities lie.

However, 44 there is rejoicing when a public relations professional is made a chief executive or 45 director of corporate communications with marketing as a subservient partner.

What 46 is good for public relations is that as many people as possible from as many disciplines 47 as possible are aware of the contribution that public relations can make in both strategic 48 and tactical ways. It is a sign that public rela- 4 tions has come of age that its unique contribution in stakeholder relations is recognised. It is true that the dialogue skills that public relations staff acquire with 9 a range of stakeholder groups will be invaluable, but organisations also need to sell or 10 obtain support for their products and services to survive.

A good general reputation, 11 often maintained through sustained public relations activity, will attract customers and 12 users of services. Good service and products enhance reputation. Organisations need 13 both marketing and public relations. The communication aspects of these matters, including 22 how to communicate with employees and external stakeholders, would normally 23 involve public relations expertise.

Control of employee communication and the division 25 between what is rightly communicated by human resources and public relations are 26 areas of potential debate. This might involve communication with employees who are 28 located within the local community and also with potential employees, and again 29 require careful assignment of responsibility for communication. Lawyers are concerned that what is said may rebound on the organisa- 42 tion and often point out that there is no requirement to say anything.

They value openness and 49 want to maintain dialogue. They are also acutely aware of the need to respond quickly to given situations — again the legal process usually takes time. Product recalls and libel cases usually include both 3 a public relations and a legal dimension and it is not uncommon for legal representa- 4 tives and public relations professionals to speak on the same issue for an organisation.

As expert boundary-spanners, public relations professionals can play a key role 13 in the dominant coalition by gathering and interpreting information from the external 14 and internal environments and presenting this as strategic intelligence. On the basis of 15 this, organisations can adapt and change or initiate a dialogue so that the continued 16 support of their key stakeholding publics can be assured.

This 24 has clearly demonstrated the variety of range and emphasis that public relations can 25 have and has indicated the panoply of skills the expert practitioner requires. In short there is a call for 29 genuine public relations within the management context.

Indeed, Cutlip et al. They go on to suggest that the latter contributes to making the democratic 24 process more effective. Private 40 income was necessary as the professions offered little pay. Later, specialised know- 41 ledge became the basis for entry Cutlip et al. Most of its practitioners have little training in the 32 social sciences. Few have been trained in public relations. We must admit that 33 many people today who call themselves public relations practitioners still do not 34 measure up to professional standards.

They also have a set of values 40 and a code of ethics that discourage the use of their knowledge and technical skills 41 for antisocial purposes. Years of training are necessary to become a doctor, lawyer or accountant, 5 followed by more years of on-the-job training. The Commission on 12 Public Relations Education recommended that the content of undergraduate and post- 13 graduate courses should include mass communications, PR theories, media relations 14 techniques, research methodology, case studies, work placements and PR management 15 Cutlip et al.

A further commission in added ethics, law and evaluation to 16 the list IPRA This was updated by the work of the Public Relations Education Commission set up by the Public Relations Society of America PRSA in , which 18 looked at the knowledge and skills which should be included in undergraduate and 19 postgraduate courses.

We 28 also strongly recommend [teachers] to continue to develop their professional experi- 29 ence while they hold teaching appointments. It was felt that this would raise the status of the profes- 38 sion in general, as well as that of the Institute.

The IPR moved towards tightening its 39 entry requirements. Using this matrix as a base, the IPR approved six courses in , including 45 vocational, undergraduate, postgraduate and masters programmes in the UK. Since then, the number of approved courses has risen to eighteen. Mindful of the need to maintain standards 39 in its delivery, these courses are only available at a few venues again, details on the 40 IPR website.

IPR 47 research carried out in found that 98 per cent of senior managers in the industry 48 expected entrants to have a degree IPR This has led to a major initiative to 4 improve the commitment to training within the industry. The IPR has also started to 5 benchmark the provision of commercial training organisations with its Approved 6 Training Provider kitemark. Public relations practitioners.

The 34 emphasis is on practical techniques. The technocratic model is more associated with 35 professions, and consists of a systematic knowledge base founded on academic disci- 36 plines, the application of that base to practice, and supervised placements in practice.

The 38 third model, or post-technocratic, emphasises professional competence and bridges the 39 gap between education and employment. All IPR workshops now carry 14 an indication of their level, and the overall structure can be used by both individuals 15 and companies when planning their training requirements.

Courses of the Approved 16 Training Providers are also linked to level and subject. The framework has been constantly updated, and contains an indication of the skills needed to ensure that PR 18 practitioners can use new technology see later discussions on the implications of new 19 technology in Chapters 18, 19 and The PR sector has seen consistent 27 growth. However, the industry has not been able to tool up 29 fast enough to satisfy demand.

This will need to change. It has strict criteria for membership, and is developing a Diploma 36 in Consultancy Management. We will look at the content of these codes below. One problem with 39 the raising of standards within PR is that these organisations do not represent all of 40 those working in PR in the UK. The IPR has over 6, members, of which around 41 1, are students on the approved courses.

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